On the Meaning of Life - John Cottingham Essay Example for Free

On the Meaning of Life John Cottingham Essay What is our relationship with the universe – who are we and how did we come to be seems to be the ultimate question of the meaning of life. This question has always sparked powerful debates between the views of the religious and modern science. Many believe this topic is a one-sided issue where these views cannot co-exist with one another, either one’s a theist, believing in God as the soul creator and ruler of the universe or an atheist, disbelieving of a supreme being or beings. But in actuality, modern science does not count against the nature of a divine creator behind the universe. So as modern science offers an account of how things happened, religious beliefs account for a certain aspect of â€Å"why,† aiming towards finding significance and value. In On The Meaning of Life, John Cottingham argues in order to have meaning, you must not eliminate one theory from the other; modern science and religion must co-exist together. First, what’s the meaning of modern science, and why does it contribute to the meaning of life? Philosopher Rene Descartes believed in mechanism, a theory holding that organisms are machines in the sense that they are material systems, therefore explains biological processes, within the framework of science. In order to discover a fundamental set of principles that is â€Å"based ultimately on the universal laws of mathematical physics that governed the behavior of all natural phenomena, celestial and terrestrial alike,† (6) Descartes banish teleology (any system attempting to explain a series of events in terms of ends, goals, or purposes) from science. He believed in order to conceive this unified theory there was no room for purposiveness, and since this universal law was made of mathematical physics, â€Å"there was no attainable answer to the question why† (6). But Cottingham thinks if we were to achieve and complete a [super-theory linking gravity and quantum physics] together to answer the ultimate question, we still would [fall short of explaining why there should be a universe at all]. Cottingham’s belief is acceptable because if this super-theory was completed, that included all observable phenomena in the universe, this theory still would not answer the question to â€Å"why is it so. † This is where science has reached its limits. Religion takes off of where science can no longer be held accountable to the meaning of life. Why should there be a universe there to explain? Unlike the language of science, religious language â€Å"grapples with the task of addressing what cannot be fully captured by even the most complete scientific account of the phenomenal world† (8). Instead of finding significance in terms of physical quantities and mechanical interactions, religious language reflects on the universes power, beauty, rhythm, and harmony. Therefore, religious discourse pushes the limits of the observable, towards uncovering something beyond the phenomenal world, in hopes of giving meaning to the universe and to our human lives. Cottingham believes religion â€Å"adds a framework within which that nature is revealed as more than just a set of characteristics†¦ encourages us with the hope that the pursuit of virtue†¦ contributes to the establishment of moral order that the cosmos was created to realize† (72). In other words, the religious perspective offers a possibility for human purposeness by providing a powerful focus on moral goodness. Religious discourse is important because since science accounts for how the universe and humans were made. We feel that we are thrown into this world where nothing ultimately matters, but religion offers hope, value and significance towards life. After examining the different aspects modern science and religion brings to the ultimate question, Cottingham urges to combine the language of science and religion together in order to have meaning. Cottingham states â€Å"in strict logic there is nothing to prevent such a purely mechanical system (of efficient causality) coexisting with a purposive system (of final causality)† (48). Therefore we must not eliminate the possibility of the two systems (modern science and religion) existing together. Philosopher Leibniz’s envisioned a world of spiritual purposes functioning in harmony with the world of physical mechanisms. This is also known as blind mechanical systems, â€Å"whose outputs, at the same time, constitute the purpose planning and doings of conscious agents† (48). Believing mechanisms and purposes could together provide an instance in support of the ultimate question of the universe. In addition, Spinoza had a parallel vision to Leibniz. He believed the universe of physical mechanisms (under the attribute of extension) exactly corresponds to spiritual ideas linking meaning and purpose to a willed creator (under the attribute of thought). Thus, we are dealing with [one and the same thing but expressed in two ways]. This showed Cottingham that since there has been no evidence to favor modern science of being the explanation of a divine nature, it does not logically eliminate the possibility of a divine creator of its meaning. So where science accounts for our human nature and origin, saying we have no ultimate significance, spirituality offers human life a sense of value. Darwin’s theory of natural selection opposes the possibility of linking modern science and religion together in one system. In order to get a sense of what threatens the framework of religion, this is the standard account of our human nature and origin: About fourteen billion years ago, the cosmos†¦including matter, radiation, space and time somehow began, exploding from a tiny concentration of matter-space energy†¦gravitational effects caused matter to clump into hydrogen masses†¦fusing into helium. Explosions caused new heavier elements, which formed into plants. On at least one planet, a self-replicating molecule arose†¦evolved into living organisms, which diversified into all kinds of plants, animals, microbes etc. , all solely as a result of natural selection. After millions of years one such species became intelligent. Man is a product of these blind forces. The main conclusion from this theory is that the universe and everything in it is a result of natural selection, including humans therefore Nottingham presumes â€Å"there is no ultimate significance to the universe or to human life,† (42) throwing out the idea of any religious significance. Darwin believed that human origin came from a purely accidental chain of blind natural forces. His view gave no choice or purposiveness in the divine nature, because everything was an entirely impersonal process. But Cottingham argues although this discovery has been scientifically accounted for, it is based on interwoven interpretation, an â€Å"interpretation that goes far beyond the truths and hypotheses that pertain strictly to the natural science† (43). And that viewing religious thought as something able to be replaced by modern science is strictly a metathesis â€Å"-a claim that operates at one remove from the claims of science itself† (43). As a result, Darwin’s theory cannot be taken very seriously because the standard account of human nature and origin is dependent on interwoven interpretation that has exceeded far from the fundamental principles of science. In essence, in order to account for the meaning of life, one must not choose modern science over religion or religion over modern science. Having one theory over the other does not manifest to the ultimate question of the meaning of life. Instead, we must link the two frameworks, divine nature and creator into a unified system. In Cottinghams words, we â€Å"must leave the door open for the theist as indeed it does for the atheist. † For where modern science can be longer contribute its findings to the meaning of life, religious language ascends from it bringing significance and value to human life. Beckie Chung Dreaming of the Earth 4 November, 2007 Cottingham, John. On The Meaning of Life. New Fetter Lane: Routledge, 2003.

The Stem Cell Dilemma Essay -- Stem Cells Medical Health Science Genet

The Stem Cell Dilemma Every day, nearly 3,000 people die while waiting for an organ transplant (D’Agnese). Moreover, 66,000 people are still on an organ donor list in the United States, few of which will ever see their name come up on that list (â€Å"Improving†). Many people believe nothing can be done about this sad fact. However, this is not the case. Studies on stem-cell research point toward a solution to this deadly problem. With efficient use of stem cells, many diseases and medical problems could be solved. Stem-cells are very young, specialized cells. Usually coming from a human embryo, they have the ability to develop into more specialized groups of cells or tissues (â€Å"Stem Cells: A Primer†). As of 2001, scientists could develop stem-cells into more than 110 different types of tissues, such as blood, brain or heart tissue (Robinson). If these cells could be so useful in the medical field, why are they not being used now? First of all, the research on stem-cells is still ongoing, though if given funding this research may have already been accomplished. According to Gary Stix, a writer for Scientific American, on November 5th, 2001, a company called Advanced Cell Technology (ACT) was the first to actually clone embryonic cells. This is not cloning in the most common sense, though. Stem-cells have previously been obtained from tissues of early stage embryos. With this experiment, scientists tried to use a new technique in making stem-cells so that real embryos need not be used. The scientists injected cells into eggs which had their nuclei removed, rather than making an actual copy of the cell. These cells developed, though the furthest development was from the one cell to eight cells, which is not enough to provide stem-cells (Lauritzen). This may not seem like much, but it is seen as a small step on the path to greater and more efficient use of these cells. So, one factor in the question of why do we not use stem-cells is that certain people do not approve of the use of embryonic tissue in research. There are many reasons, however, in which it could be seen as feasible to use embryonic stem-cells in the sake of medicine. For example people with heart disease or kidney failure could be cured with a relatively cheap operation. Today organ transplants are quite expensive and sometimes a matching donor can not even be found if a patient had ... ... Bibliography D’Agnese, Joseph. â€Å"The Debate Over Stem Cells Gets Hot†. Discover 23 (Jan. 2002): 1. Draper, Eric. â€Å"Remarks by the President on Stem Cell Research.† Aug. 9 2001. Feb.10 2002. â€Å"Improving the Nation’s Organ Transplantation System.† US Department of Health and Human Services. 18 Oct. 1999. 16 Feb. 2002. Lauritzen, Paul. â€Å"Broadening the Debate on Cloning and Stem Cell Research.† America 186 (4 Feb. 2002): 22 Academic Search Elite. Ebscohost. University of Louisville Ekstrom Library. 6 Feb. 2002. Lee, Jacqueline. â€Å"Embryonic Stem Cells: The End Doesn’t Justify the Means.† Claretian Publications Jan. 2002. Proquest. University of Louisville Ekstrom Library. 6 Feb. 2002. Robinson, B.A. â€Å"What are Stem Cells?† 29 Aug.2001. Feb 16 2002. Safire, William. â€Å"The Crimson Birthmark.† New York Times 21 Jan. 2002. Proquest. University of Louisville Ekstrom Library. 6 Feb. 2002. â€Å"Stem Cells: A Primer† National Institutes of Health. May 2000. Feb. 16 2002. Stix, Gary. â€Å"What Clones?† Scientific American 286 (Feb. 2002): 18. Academic Search Elite. Ebscohost. University of Louisville Ekstrom Library. 6 Feb. 2002.

Euthanasia: Argumentative essay Essay

The issue I am discussing today is euthanasia. Euthanasia is a practice of terminating a life of a person in a painless or minimally painful way, usually by lethal injection. In some countries it is criminalised, but I believe that euthanasia should be legal, and a basic human right. Euthanasia is a controversial issue because of conflicting moral feelings between different cultures. People say that dying by euthanasia is to die with dignity, instead of living an artificial life on respirators and other life support machines. If a person is terminally ill, and there is nothing anyone can do for them, why should they have to suffer?The text I am focussing on is a very famous book called of mice and men. This book is about a time in the great depression where two friends are struggling to find jobs. The character Lennie, who has a learning disability, is always getting into trouble for things that he doesnt realise are wrong. When Lennie crosses the line and accidentally kills a girl, George realises that if Lennie is caught, he will either be sent to a mental hospital or he will be tortured. Knowing what is truly best for Lennie, George shoots him. The author John Steinbeck is able to effectivly convince the reader to accept his opinion by writing the book about a real life euthanasia situation rather than just sayingeuthanasia isnt murder. When the victim is seriously ill or a threat to the society they shall be put to sleep without breaking the law. It is better to end one life then let it suffer. It is wrong for one to suffer without intentionally doing something wrong. These are some of the arguments that John Steinbeck is getting across in his book. It is hard to know if a life is worth living and when it isnt, but can a pain and suffering so incomprehensible ever be worth living for? A child who has severe disabilities or an elderly person with a painful disease would not get any enjoyment out of their life. Should society really force them to endure such a hardship?Some people may argue that every one should have the right to live, but they often dont know of the pain that these people go through. Sometimes the quality of life is so bad that people have the right to be put to rest if they choose. For example, a once strong, healthy, happy person is just lying in a bed unable to move. Another issue in euthanasia is having to make a choice. Many people believe that voluntary euthanasia is a form of suicide, but the definition of suicide is a person who takes their life due to depression. For depression, people can get help. But for people with painful disabilities it is beyond their control. Some may argue that voluntary euthanasia is too bigger choice for someone to make, but shouldnt people have the option to be put to rest with dignity by means of an injection rather than forms of suicide?For those that have more severe handicaps, sometimes they are incapable of understanding the situation, which makes it more difficult. Some consider involuntary euthanasia a type of murder, but murder is a crime committed against someone. If a person is severally in pain and unable to consent, then would the action of death be against the person, or would it be for the best?There is also a terrible pressure from society. All the arguments against voluntary euthanasia can be used by society to form a terrible psychological pressure on people to continue living for years against their better judgement. One example of this pressure is the risky and painful methods that those who genuinely wish to die would otherwise need to use, such as hanging. There are other factors people often forget about euthanasia such as economic costs. There is a limit on human resources in the world, in some countries there is a serious shortage of hospital space. The energy of doctors should be put on peoples lives that can be saved instead of a continued life of somebody who wants to die. This would increase the general quality of care, and would shorten waiting lists. It is also very hard on families do deal with not having the option of euthanasia. Instead of a memory of the person being happy and strong, they have a memory of the person lying there helpless, not able to feed themselves, get out of bed, or remember who they are. You might say that you should not try and play god by taking someones life away, but then why would god want to inflict so much pain on its creations? i believe that knowone should have to live with a pain that is worse than death. Bibliography Steinbeck, J. 1937, Of mice and Men, Covici, Friede, Inc. Wikipedia ®, Euthanasia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EuthanasiaSydney Morning Herald, Euthanasia debatehttp://www.smh.com.au/specials/euthanasia/ATHEIST FOUNDATION OF AUSTRALIA INC, Voluntary Euthanasiahttp://www.atheistfoundation.org.au/ve.htm

Persuasive Essay On The Atomic Bomb - 1602 Words

In 1941, US President Franklin Roosevelt approved the funding for the American-led effort to develop an atomic weapon. This project was codenamed â€Å"The Manhattan Project.† The original motivation to create an atomic bomb was out of fear that Nazi Germany was pursuing their own atomic project. When the United States successfully tested their nuclear weapon in July 1945, Germany had already surrendered, and the focus of the Allied powers was on the defeat of Imperial Japan. Ultimately, two atomic bombs were dropped on Japanese cities in early August 1945, leading to the end of the Second World War. The dropping of the bombs led to over 150,000 civilian and military deaths. Despite the massive loss of innocent life, I believe that the United†¦show more content†¦Conservative estimates have said that a million lives could have been lost had the US launched a full assault on the Japanese home islands. Strictly looking at the numbers, dropping the atomic bombs saved nea rly a million lives. Also, Imperial Japanese forces controlled hundreds of thousands of Chinese and Indonesian people in 1945. On average, about 10,000 civilians and POWs under Japanese rule were killed every week the war continued. Not only were the bombs dropped to save the lives of those American soldiers that were invading the Japanese homeland, but it also saved the lives of innocent civilians in mainland Asia who were suffering under Japanese rule. In addition to these innocent civilians, by the end of the war, Japanese military leaders were training civilians to fight. It was the Japanese belief that despite the lack of military training, these civilians, often women, would overcome American soldiers with their â€Å"Japanese spirit†. These soldiers would have stood no chance against a well trained American Marine, especially a Marine who had just fought at Peleliu and Okinawa. Marines who had fought in these previous battles would have been so mentally and physically fatigued that the difference between civilian and soldier would have been indistinguishable. These â€Å"trained† Japanese civilians would have been annihilated by US soldiers. The mental effectsShow MoreRelatedPersuasive Essay On The Atomic Bomb1037 Words   |  5 Pagesbomber, loaded with a new and destructive weapon, soared across the sky over the Japanese city of Hiroshima. Seconds later, that new weapon- an atomic bomb that released its destructive energy by the splitting of uranium atoms- lit up the sky, killing nearly 80,000 Japanese civilians instantly. Three days later, the United States dropped a second bomb on the Japanese city of Nagasaki, which resulted in about 40,000 more instant deaths. 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